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a general degree

Толкование Перевод

1 general degree

general degree n GB diplôme sanctionnant des études universitaires.

Big English-French dictionary > general degree
2 general degree

[,dʒenərəldɪ'griː]
сте́пень бакала́вра [ bachelor] без отли́чия по двум или трём дисципли́нам (см. тж. pass degree; ср. honours degree)

English-Russian Great Britain dictionary (Великобритания. Лингвострановедческий словарь) > general degree
3 general degree

subst.

( utdanning) forklaring: lavere akademisk grad uten spesialisering

English-Norwegian dictionary > general degree
4 general degree

nome BE = laurea

* * *

nome BE = laurea

English-Italian dictionary > general degree
5 general degree

noun GB diplôme sanctionnant des études universitaires

English-French dictionary > general degree
6 general degree

n. општа диплома

English-Macedonian dictionary > general degree
7 ♦ general

♦ general (1) /ˈdʒɛnrəl/
a.

1 generale; comune; pubblico; collettivo; universale: a general strike, uno sciopero generale; a phrase that is in general use, una locuzione d'uso comune; the general welfare, il bene pubblico, il benessere collettivo; a general notion, un concetto universale

2 generico; indeterminato; vago: He spoke in general terms, ha parlato in modo vago; a general resemblance, una vaga somiglianza

3 comune; diffuso; universale

● (leg.) general acceptance, accettazione incondizionata ( d'una cambiale) □ (med.) general anaesthesia, anestesia totale □ (ass., naut.) general average, avaria generale (o comune) □ (naut.) general bill of lading, polizza di carico collettiva □ general business, varie ed eventuali ( ultima voce in un ordine del giorno) □ (naut.) general cargo, carico misto (o a collettame) □ (in GB) the General Council, il Consiglio Generale ( dei sindacati britannici) □ ( banca) general crossing, sbarratura semplice ( di un assegno) □ (leg.) general damages, danni presunti dalla legge e ammessi senza bisogno di prova □ general dealer, commerciante (o negoziante) in generi vari □ a general degree, una laurea generica ( in varie discipline, senza specializzazione) □ ( USA) general delivery, fermo posta □ general education, istruzione di carattere generale ( non specializzata) □ general election, elezioni generali (o politiche) □ (comm.) general endorsement, girata in bianco □ the general feeling, il sentimento popolare □ (leg.) general heir, erede universale □ (med.) general hospital, policlinico □ general knowledge, cultura enciclopedica □ (rag.) general ledger, mastro generale; libro mastro □ (org. az.) general management, direzione generale □ (org. az.) general manager, direttore generale □ (org. az.) general partner, socio accomandatario □ (org. az.) general partnership, società in nome collettivo □ General Post Office, (in GB, fino al 1969) Ministero delle Poste; (spec. in USA) posta centrale ( di una città) □ general practice, medicina generica □ (med.) general practitioner, medico generico; medico di base □ (leg.) general proxy, delega generale □ the general public, il grande pubblico □ general-purpose, pluriuso, multiuso, universale: (mil.) general-purpose bomb, bomba multiuso; (tecn.) general-purpose weedkiller, diserbante universale □ a general reader, un lettore di letteratura varia; chi legge ogni sorta di libri □ (stat.) General Register (in Scozia: Registry Office), Istituto Centrale di Statistica □ (fin., leg.) general reserve, riserva generale □ ( a scuola) general science, scienze naturali, chimica e fisica □ general servant, domestico (o domestica) tuttofare □ (mil.) general staff, stato maggiore □ general store, negozio di generi vari ( alimentari, ecc.); drogheria □ (stor.) the General Strike, lo sciopero del 1926 in GB ( durò sei mesi) □ (relig.) the General Synod, il Sinodo Generale ( della Chiesa anglicana) □ (dog.) general warehouse, magazzino generale □ (leg.) general warrant, mandato di cattura in bianco □ as a general rule, in genere; di regola; generalmente □ in general, in genere; generalmente; di solito.
general (2) /ˈdʒɛnrəl/
n.

1 (spec. mil.) generale: brigadier general, generale di brigata; ( ora, anche in Italia) brigadiere generale; the general of the Dominicans, il generale dei domenicani

2 (mil., in GB e in USA) – General, Tenente Generale con incarichi speciali: Lieutenant General, Tenente Generale

3 (aeron. mil., in USA) – General, Generale di Squadra Aerea con incarichi speciali (cfr. ingl. Air Chief Marshal, sotto air): Lieutenant General, Generale di Squadra Aerea

4 – (fig.) the general, il generale ( contrario di: il particolare)

5 (pl.) ( raro) generalità; principi (o nozioni) generali

6 (med.) anestesia totale

● (aeron. mil., in USA) General of the Airforce ( è il grado più elevato; non ha equivalente in Italia; cfr. ingl. Marshal of the Royal Air Force, sotto marshal) □ (mil., in USA) General of the army ( è il grado più elevato; non ha equivalente in Italia).

English-Italian dictionary > ♦ general
8 general

general ['dʒenərəl]

1 adjective

(a) (common) général;

∎ as a general rule en règle générale, en général;

∎ in general terms en termes généraux;

∎ in the general interest dans l'intérêt de tous;

∎ the general feeling was that he should have won le sentiment général était qu'il aurait dû gagner;

∎ there was a general movement to leave the room la plupart des gens se sont levés pour sortir

(b) (approximate) général;

∎ a general resemblance une vague ressemblance;

∎ to go in the general direction of sth se diriger plus ou moins vers qch;

∎ their house is over in that general direction leur maison se trouve vers là-bas

(c) (widespread) général, répandu;

∎ a general opinion une opinion générale ou répandue;

∎ to be in general use être d'usage courant ou répandu;

∎ to come into general use se généraliser;

∎ this word is no longer in general use ce mot est tombé en désuétude;

∎ there is general agreement on the matter il y a consensus sur la question;

∎ this kind of attitude is fairly general in Europe ce genre d'attitude est assez répandu en Europe;

∎ the rain has been pretty general il a plu un peu partout

(d) (overall → outline, plan, impression) d'ensemble;

∎ the general effect is quite pleasing le résultat général est assez agréable;

∎ I get the general idea je vois en gros;

∎ he gave her a general idea or outline of his work il lui a décrit son travail dans les grandes lignes;

∎ the general tone of her remarks was that… ce qui ressortait de ses remarques c'est que…;

∎ he made himself a general nuisance il a été embêtant à tout point de vue

(e) (ordinary)

∎ this book is for the general reader ce livre est destiné au lecteur moyen;

∎ the general public le grand public

2 noun

(a) (in reasoning)

∎ to go from the general to the particular aller du général au particulier

(b) Military général m

(c) (domestic servant) bonne f à tout faire

3 in general adverb

en général

►► Banking general account manager chargé(e) m,f de clientèle grand public;

general accounts comptabilité f générale;

American General Accounting Office = Cour des comptes américaine;

Finance & Commerce general and administrative expenses frais mpl généraux et frais de gestion;

Commerce general agent agent m d'affaires;

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade accord m général sur les tarifs douaniers et le commerce;

Medicine general anaesthetic anesthésie f générale;

General Assembly assemblée f générale;

Australian Cinema general (audience) = tous publics;

Insurance general average avarie f commune;

Commerce general business (on agenda) questions fpl diverses;

formerly School General Certificate of Education = certificat de fin d'études secondaires en deux étapes (O level et A level) dont la première est aujourd'hui remplacée par le GCSE;

School General Certificate of Secondary Education = premier examen de fin de scolarité en Grande-Bretagne; see also GCSE ;

American general dealer bazar m;

University general degree = licence comportant plusieurs matières;

American general delivery poste f restante;

general election élections fpl législatives;

British General Electric Company = société britannique fabriquant des produits électriques, électroniques et de télécommunications;

American School general equivalency diploma = aux États-Unis, diplôme d'études secondaires pour adultes souvent obtenu par correspondance;

Accountancy & Finance general expenses frais mpl généraux;

general headquarters (grand) quartier m général;

general hospital centre m hospitalier;

general knowledge culture f générale;

Accountancy general ledger grand-livre m;

Law general lien privilège m général;

general management committee comité m de direction;

general manager directeur(trice) m,f général(e);

British General Medical Council ≃ conseil m de l'ordre des médecins;

general meeting assemblée f générale;

British General, Municipal, Boilermakers and Allied Trades Union = important syndicat britannique;

British General and Municipal Workers' Union = syndicat britannique des employés des collectivités locales;

British School General National Vocational Qualification = formation professionnelle sur deux ans que l'on peut suivre à partir de seize ans;

Finance general obligation bond emprunt m de collectivité locale;

general officer général m en chef; Accountancy &

Finance British general overheads, American general overhead frais mpl d'administration générale;

General Post Office (in Britain) = titre officiel de la Poste britannique avant 1969; (in US) = les services postaux américains;

general practice médecine f générale;

general practitioner médecin m généraliste, omnipraticien(enne) m,f;

Finance general price level niveau m général des prix;

general secretary (of trade union, political party) secrétaire mf général(e);

general staff état-major m;

general store bazar m;

general strike grève f générale;

the General Strike = la grève de mai 1926 en Grande-Bretagne, lancée par les syndicats par solidarité avec les mineurs;

School General Studies ≃ cours m de culture générale;

General Synod = le Synode général de l'Église anglicane;

Finance general wage level niveau m général des salaires

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > general
9 grado

grado sustantivo masculino 1 ( en general) degree;
◊ estamos a tres grados bajo cero it's three degrees below zero;
grado centígrado or Celsius/Fahrenheit degree centigrade o Celsius/Fahrenheit; el grado de confusión reinante the degree of confusion that prevails; en grado sumo extremely 2 ( de escalafón) grade; (Mil) rank 3 ( disposición):
◊ de buen/mal grado willingly/unwillingly
4
a) (esp AmL) (Educ) (curso, año) year

b) ( título):

◊ tiene el grado de licenciado he has a college (AmE) o (BrE) university degree

grado sustantivo masculino
1 degree
2 Mil rank
3 (gusto, voluntad) desire, will Locuciones: de buen/mal grado, willingly/reluctantly ' grado' also found in these entries: Spanish: categoría - coeficiente - colmo - ecuación - insolación - jerarquía - mayor - medida - menor - menos - mínimamente - poder - punto - superior - décima - enfadado - enfadar - enojado - enojar - extensión - grande English: accurately - degree - extent - extreme - first-degree - grace - grade - grind - insofar - may - optimum - point - rank - registrar - subaltern - commission - freely - lesser

English-spanish dictionary > grado
10 master

1. feminine - mistress; noun
1) (a person or thing that commands or controls: I'm master in this house!) señor, dueño; señora, dueña

2) (an owner (of a slave, dog etc): The dog ran to its master.) amo, ama

3) (a male teacher: the Maths master.) maestro, profesor; maestra, profesora

4) (the commander of a merchant ship: the ship's master.) capitán, patrón; capitana, patrona

5) (a person very skilled in an art, science etc: He's a real master at painting.) maestro, maestra

6) ((with capital) a polite title for a boy, in writing or in speaking: Master John Smith.) señor; señora

2. adjective
((of a person in a job) fully qualified, skilled and experienced: a master builder/mariner/plumber.) maestro, experto

3. verb
1) (to overcome (an opponent, handicap etc): She has mastered her fear of heights.) superar, vencer, dominar

2) (to become skilful in: I don't think I'll ever master arithmetic.) dominar, ser experto en

•

- masterful
- masterfully
- masterfulness
- masterly
- masterliness
- mastery
- master key
- mastermind
4. verb
(to plan (such a scheme): Who masterminded the robbery?) planear, dirigir

- masterpiece
- master stroke
- master switch
- master of ceremonies

master¹ n

1. señor / amo / dueño

a dog and his master un perro y su amo

2. maestro / profesor

the physics master el profesor de física

El equivalente femenino de master es mistress

master² vb dominar

it takes years to master the technique se tarda años en dominar la técnica

Multiple Entries: master máster
máster /'master/ sustantivo masculino (pl
◊ - ters)
1 (Audio, Vídeo) master 2 (Educ) master's degree
máster sustantivo masculino master's degree ' máster' also found in these entries: Spanish: ama - amo - dominar - jefa - jefe - maestra - maestro - capitán - llave English: destiny - hard - MA - master - master copy - master key - master plan - master's degree - MBA - MPhil - MSc - gang - head - MC - MS - school - station

master

tr['mɑːstə^SMALLr/SMALL]

noun

1 (of slave, servant, dog) amo; (of household) señor nombre masculino; (owner) dueño

2 SMALLMARITIME/SMALL (of ship) capitán nombre masculino; (of fishing boat) patrón nombre masculino

3 SMALLBRITISH ENGLISH/SMALL (teacher - infant school) maestro, profesor nombre masculino; (- secondary) profesor nombre masculino

4 (expert, artist, musician, etc) maestro

5 (original copy of film, tape, etc) original nombre masculino

noun

1 Master SMALLEDUCATION/SMALL (second level degree) máster nombre masculino; (holder of master's degree) máster nombre masulino o femenino; (head of certain university colleges) director,-ra

adjective

1 (expert, skilled) maestro,-a, experto,-a

1 (original) original

1 (overall, complete) total, general, global

1 (main, principal) principal, maestro,-a

transitive verb

1 (control) dominar; (overcome) superar, vencer

1 (learn - subject, skill) llegar a dominar; (- craft) llegar a ser experto,-a en

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

to be master of a situation ser dueño de una situación

to be master of one's own fate decidir su propio destino

to meet one's master ser vencido,-a

master bedroom dormitorio principal

master builder (skilled workman) maestro de obras 2 (self-employed builder) contratista nombre masulino o femenino

master copy original nombre masculino

master key llave nombre femenino maestra

master of ceremonies maestro de ceremonias

master plan proyecto maestro

master race (nazi) raza superior

master's degree licenciatura con tesina, master nombre masculino

master switch interruptor nombre masculino central

master ['mæstər] vt

1) subdue: dominar

2) : llegar a dominar

she mastered French: llegó a dominar el francés

master n

1) teacher: maestro m, profesor m

2) expert: experto m, -ta f; maestro m, -tra f

3) : amo m (de animales o esclavos), señor m (de la casa)

4)

master's degree : maestría f

master

adj.

• amo, -a adj.

• maestro, -a adj.

• magistral adj.

• principal adj.

n.

• amo s.m.

• capitán s.m.

• director s.m.

• dueño s.m.

• maestro s.m.

• profesor s.m.

• señor s.m.

• señorito s.m.

v.

• amaestrar v.

• domar v.

• domeñar v.

• dominar v.

• poseer v.

• saber v.

(§pres: sé, sabes...) subj: sep-

pret: sup-

fut/c: sabr-•)

• señorear v.

• vencer v.

I 'mæstər, 'mɑːstə(r)
noun

1) ( of household) señor m, amo m; ( of animal) amo m, dueño m; ( of servant) amo m, patrón m

to be one's own master — no tener* que darle cuentas a nadie

2) ( expert)

master OF something — maestro, -tra m,f de algo, experto, -ta m,f en algo

to be a past master of something — ser* un maestro consumado en algo

3) ( Educ)

a) ( degree)

master's (degree) — master m, maestría f

Master of Arts/Science — poseedor de una maestría en Humanidades/Ciencias

b) (BrE) ( in secondary school) profesor m

4) ( Naut) capitán m

5) Master

a) ( Hist) ( as form of address used by servants) el señor; ( to younger man) señorito

b) ( on letters to young boys) Sr

6) ( for copies) (Audio, Comput, Print) original m

II

transitive verb \<\<technique/subject\>\> llegar* a dominar

III

adjective (before n, no comp)

a) ( expert)

master baker/builder — maestro m panadero/de obras

b) ( main) <switch/key> maestro

master bedroom — dormitorio m principal

c) ( original) < tape> original, matriz

master copy — original m

master plan — plan m general

['mɑːstǝ(r)]
1. N

1) [of the house] señor m, amo m ; [of dog, servant] amo m ; (in address) señor m

the master is not at home — el señor no está

the young master — el señorito

to be master in one's own house — mandar en su propia casa

to be one's own master — ser dueño de sí mismo

I am (the) master now — ahora mando yo

to be master of the situation — dominar la situación

to be master of one's fate — decidir su propio destino

- meet one's master

- serve two masters

2) (Naut) [of ship] capitán m

3) (=musician, painter etc) maestro m ; old 3.

4) (=expert) experto(-a) m / f

he is a master at (the art of) making money — es un experto en el arte de hacer dinero
past
5) † (=teacher) (primary) maestro m ; (secondary) profesor m

the music master — el profesor de música

6) (Univ)

Master of Arts/Science — (=qualification) master m en letras/ciencias; (=person) persona que posee un master en letras/ciencias

she's working for her Master's (degree) — está estudiando para sacarse el máster

See:

see cultural note DEGREE in degree

2.

VT [+ subject, situation, technique] dominar

to master the violin — llegar a dominar el violín

3.

CPD

master baker N — maestro m panadero

master bedroom N — dormitorio m principal

master builder N — maestro m de obras

master card N — carta f maestra

master class N — clase f magistral

master copy N — original m

master disk N — disco m maestro

master file N — fichero m maestro

master key N — llave f maestra

master mariner N — capitán m

master mason N — albañil mf maestro(-a)

master of ceremonies N — maestro m de ceremonias; [of show] presentador m, animador m

master of foxhounds N — cazador m mayor

Master of the Rolls N — (Brit) juez mf del tribunal de apelación

master plan N — plan m maestro, plan m rector

master sergeant N — (US) sargento mf mayor

master spy N — jefe mf de espías, controlador(a) m / f de espías

master switch N — interruptor m general

master tape N — máster m, cinta f maestra

* * *

I ['mæstər, 'mɑːstə(r)]
noun

1) ( of household) señor m, amo m; ( of animal) amo m, dueño m; ( of servant) amo m, patrón m

to be one's own master — no tener* que darle cuentas a nadie

2) ( expert)

master OF something — maestro, -tra m,f de algo, experto, -ta m,f en algo

to be a past master of something — ser* un maestro consumado en algo

3) ( Educ)

a) ( degree)

master's (degree) — master m, maestría f

Master of Arts/Science — poseedor de una maestría en Humanidades/Ciencias

b) (BrE) ( in secondary school) profesor m

4) ( Naut) capitán m

5) Master

a) ( Hist) ( as form of address used by servants) el señor; ( to younger man) señorito

b) ( on letters to young boys) Sr

6) ( for copies) (Audio, Comput, Print) original m

II

transitive verb \<\<technique/subject\>\> llegar* a dominar

III

adjective (before n, no comp)

a) ( expert)

master baker/builder — maestro m panadero/de obras

b) ( main) <switch/key> maestro

master bedroom — dormitorio m principal

c) ( original) < tape> original, matriz

master copy — original m

master plan — plan m general

English-spanish dictionary > master
11 of

acknowledgement of receipt
подтверждение приема
actual time of arrival
фактическое время прибытия
aerodrome of call
аэродром выхода на радиосвязь
aerodrome of departure
аэродром вылета
aerodrome of intended landing
аэродром предполагаемой посадки
aerodrome of origin
аэродром приписки
aircraft center - of - gravity
центровка воздушного судна
airport of departure
аэропорт вылета
airport of destination
аэропорт назначения
airport of entry
аэропорт прилета
allocation of duties
распределение обязанностей
allocation of frequencies
распределение частот
allotment of frequencies
выделение частот
alternative means of communication
резервные средства связи
amount of controls
степень использования
amount of feedback
степень обратной связи
amount of precipitation
количество осадков
angle of allowance
угол упреждения
angle of approach
угол захода на посадку
angle of approach light
угол набора высоты
angle of ascent
угол набора высоты
angle of attack
угол атаки
angle of climb
угол набора высоты
angle of coverage
угол действия
angle of crab
угол сноса
angle of descent
угол снижения
angle of deviation
угол отклонения
angle of dip
угол магнитного склонения
angle of dive
угол пикирования
angle of downwash
угол скоса потока вниз
angle of elevation
угол места
angle of exit
угол схода
angle of glide
угол планирования
angle of incidence
угол атаки
angle of indraft
угол входа воздушной массы
angle of lag
угол отставания
angle of landing
посадочный угол
angle of pitch
угол тангажа
angle of roll
угол крена
angle - of - sideslip transmitter
датчик угла скольжения
angle of sight
угол прицеливания
angle of slope
угол наклона глиссады
angle of stall
угол сваливания
angle of turn
угол разворота
angle of upwash
угол скоса потока вверх
angle of visibility
угол обзора
angle of yaw
угол рыскания
antimeridian of Greenwich
меридиан, противоположный Гринвичскому
apparent drift of the gyro
кажущийся уход гироскопа
application of tariffs
применение тарифов
approach rate of descent
скорость снижения при заходе на посадку
arc of a path
дуга траектории
arc of equal bearings
дуга равных азимутов
area of coverage
зона действия
area of coverage of the forecasts
район обеспечения прогнозами
area of occurence
район происшествия
area of responsibility
зона ответственности
arrest the development of the stall
препятствовать сваливанию
assessment of costs
установление размеров расходов
assignment of duties
распределение обязанностей
Association of European Airlines
Ассоциация европейских авиакомпаний
Association of South Pacific Airlines
Ассоциация авиакомпаний южной части Тихого океана
assumption of control message
прием экипажем диспетчерского указания
at a speed of
на скорости
at the end of
в конце цикла
at the end of segment
в конце участка
(полета) at the end of stroke
в конце хода
(поршня) at the start of cycle
в начале цикла
at the start of segment
в начале участка
(полета) aviation-to-aviation type of interference
помехи от авиационных объектов
avoidance of collisions
предотвращение столкновений
avoidance of hazardous conditions
предупреждение опасных условий полета
axial of bank
продольная ось
axis of precession
ось прецессии гироскопа
axis of roll
продольная ось
axis of rotation
ось вращения
axis of yaw
вертикальная ось
backward movement of the stick
взятие ручки на себя
be out of trim
быть разбалансированным
best rate of climb
наибольшая скороподъемность
bias out of view
выходить из поля зрения
bill of entry
таможенная декларация
bill of lading
грузовая накладная
blanketing of controls
затенение рулей
body of compass card
диск картушки компаса
boundary of the area
граница зоны
Bureau of Administration and Services
Административно-хозяйственное управление
camber of a profile
кривизна профиля
care of passengers
обслуживание пассажиров
carriage of passengers
перевозка пассажиров
carry out a circuit of the aerodrome
выполнять круг полета над аэродромом
cause of aircraft trouble
причина неисправности воздушного судна
center of air pressure
центр аэродинамического давления
center of depression
центр низкого давления
center of force
центр приложения силы
center of gravity
центр тяжести
center of mass
центр масс
center of pressure
центр давления
Central Agency of Air Service
Главное агентство воздушных сообщений
certificate of revaccination
сертификат ревакцинации
certificate of safety for flight
свидетельство о допуске к полетам
certificate of vaccination
сертификат вакцинации
choice of field
выбор посадочной площадки
class of lift
класс посадки
clearance of goods
таможенное разрешение на провоз
clearance of obstacles
безопасная высота пролета препятствий
clearance of the aircraft
разрешение воздушному судну
coefficient of heat transfer
коэффициент теплопередачи
come clear of the ground
отрываться от земли
complex type of aircraft
комбинированный тип воздушного судна
composition of a crew
состав экипажа
concept of separation
эшелонирование
conditions of carriage
условия перевозок
cone of rays
пучок лучей
congestion of information
насыщенность информации
continuity of guidance
непрерывность наведения
contour of perceived noise
контур воспринимаемого шума
control of an investigation
контроль за ходом расследования
correlation of levels
приведение эшелонов в соответствие
country of arrival
страна прилета
country of origin
страна вылета
course of training
курс подготовки
coverage of the chart
картографируемый район
curve of equal bearings
линия равных азимутов
danger of collisions
опасность столкновения
degree of accuracy
степень точности
degree of freedom
степень свободы
degree of skill
уровень квалификации
degree of stability
степень устойчивости
denial of carriage
отказ в перевозке
Department of Transportation
Министерство транспорта
derivation of operating data
расчет эксплуатационных параметров
determination of cause
установление причины
determine amount of the error
определять величину девиации
determine the extent of damage
определять степень повреждения
determine the sign of deviation
определять знак девиации
development of the stall
процесс сваливания
direction of approach
направление захода на посадку
direction of rotation
направление вращения
direction of turn
направление разворота
duration of noise effect
продолжительность воздействия шума
elevation of the strip
превышение летной полосы
elevation setting of light units
установка углов возвышения глиссадных огней
eliminate the cause of
устранять причину
eliminate the source of danger
устранять источник опасности
(для воздушного движения) end of runway
начало ВПП
enforce rules of the air
обеспечивать соблюдение правил полетов
en-route change of level
изменение эшелона на маршруте
erection of the gyro
восстановление гироскопа
estimated position of aircraft
расчетное положение воздушного судна
estimated time of arrival
расчетное время прибытия
estimated time of departure
расчетное время вылета
estimated time of flight
расчетное время полета
even use of fuel
равномерная выработка топлива
extension of ticket validity
продление срока годности билета
extent of damage
степень повреждения
facilitate rapid clearance of
обеспечивать быстрое освобождение
factor of safety
уровень безопасности
filing of statistical data
представление статистических данных
first freedom of the air
первая степень свободы воздуха
first type of occurence
первый тип события
flow of air traffic
поток воздушного движения
fly under the supervision of
летать под контролем
for reasons of safety
в целях безопасности
freedom of action
свобода действий
freedom of the air
степень свободы воздуха
frequency of operations
частота полетов
gathering of information
сбор информации
general conditions of carriage
основные условия перевозки
General Conference of Weights and Measure
Генеральная конференция по мерам и весам
General Department of International Air Services of Aeroflot
Центральное управление международных воздушных сообщений гражданской авиации
get out of control
терять управление
given conditions of flight
заданные условия полета
go out of control
становиться неуправляемым
go out of the spin
выходить из штопора
grade of service
категория обслуживания
grade of the pilot licence
класс пилотского свидетельства
grading of runway
нивелирование ВПП
height at start of retraction
высота начала уборки
hover at the height of
зависать на высоте
identification of signals
опознавание сигналов
inconventional type of aircraft
нестандартный тип воздушного судна
increase a camber of the profile
увеличивать кривизну профиля
indication of a request
обозначение запроса
in interests of safety
в интересах безопасности
initial rate of climb
начальная скороподъемность
initial stage of go-around
начальный участок ухода на второй круг
inlet angle of attack
угол атаки заборного устройства
intake angle of attack
угол атаки воздухозаборника
integrated system of airspace control
комплексная система контроля воздушного пространства
interception of civil aircraft
перехват гражданского воздушного судна
International Co-ordinating Council of Aerospace Industries Association
Международный координационный совет ассоциаций авиакосмической промышленности
International Council of Aircraft Owner and Pilot Associations
Международный совет ассоциаций владельцев воздушных судов и пилотов
International Federation of Air Line Pilots' Associations
Международная федерация ассоциаций линейных пилотов
International Federation of Air Traffic Controllers' Associations
Международная федерация ассоциаций авиадиспетчеров
International Relations Department of the Ministry of Civil Aviation
Управление внешних сношений Министерства гражданской авиации
interpretation of the signal
расшифровка сигнала
interpretation of weather chart
чтение метеорологической карты
intersection of air routes
пересечение воздушных трасс
in the case of delay
в случае задержки
in the event of a mishap
в случае происшествия
in the event of malfunction
в случая отказа
introduction of the corrections
ввод поправок
keep clear of rotor blades
остерегаться лопастей несущего винта
keep clear of the aircraft
держаться на безопасном расстоянии от воздушного судна
keep out of the way
не занимать трассу
layout of aerodrome markings
маркировка аэродрома
layout of controls
расположение органов управления
lessee of an aircraft
арендатор воздушного судна
level of airworthiness
уровень летной годности
level of safety
уровень безопасности
level of speech interference
уровень помех речевой связи
limiting range of mass
предел ограничения массы
line of flight
линия полета
line of position
линия положения
line of sight
линия визирования
location of distress
район бедствия
loss of control
потеря управления
loss of pressurization
разгерметизация
loss of strength
потеря прочности
magnetic orientation of runway
ориентировка ВПП по магнитному меридиану
margin of error
допуск на погрешность
margin of lift
запас подъемной силы
margin of safety
допустимый уровень безопасности
margin of stability
запас устойчивости
marking of pavements
маркировка покрытия
mean scale of the chart
средний масштаб карты
means of communication
средства связи
means of identification
средства опознавания
meridian of Greenwich
гринвичский меридиан
method of steepest descent
способ резкого снижения
mode of flight
режим полета
moment of inertia
момент инерции
moment of momentum
момент количества движения
name-code of the route
кодирование названия маршрута
onset of wind
резкий порыв ветра
operation of aircraft
эксплуатация воздушного судна
out of ground effect
вне зоны влияния земли
out of service
изъятый из эксплуатации
overshoot capture of the glide slope
поздний захват глиссадного луча
period of rating currency
период действия квалифицированной отметки
personal property of passengers
личные вещи пассажиров
pilot's field of view
поле зрения пилота
plane of rotation
плоскость вращения
plane of symmetry of the aeroplane
плоскость симметрии самолета
point of arrival
пункт прилета
point of call
пункт выхода на связь
point of departure
пункт вылета
point of destination
пункт назначения
point of discontinuity
точка разрыва
point of intersection
точка пересечения
point of loading
пункт погрузки
point of no return
рубеж возврата
point of origin
пункт вылета
point of turn-around
рубеж разворота
point of unloading
пункт выгрузки
portion of a flight
отрезок полета
portion of a runway
участок ВПП
prevention of collisions
предотвращение столкновений
primary element of structure
основной элемент конструкции
prohibition of landing
запрещение посадки
prolongation of the rating
продление срока действия квалификационной отметки
promotion of safety
обеспечение безопасности полетов
proof of compliance
доказательство соответствия
propagation of sound
распространение шума
protection of evidence
сохранение вещественных доказательств
pull out of the spin
выводить из штопора
pull the aircraft out of
брать штурвал на себя
radar transfer of control
передача радиолокационного диспетчерского управления
radius of curvature
радиус кривизны
range of coverage
радиус действия
range of motion
диапазон отклонения
range of revolutions
диапазон оборотов
range of visibility
дальность видимости
range of vision
дальность обзора
rate of climb
скороподъемность
rate of closure
скорость сближения
rate of descent
скорость снижения
rate of disagreement
скорость рассогласования
rate of duty
скорость таможенной пошлины
rate of exchange
курс обмена валюты
rate of flaps motion
скорость отклонения закрылков
rate of growth
темп роста
rate of pitch
скорость по тангажу
rate of roll
скорость крена
rate of sideslip
скорость бокового скольжения
rate of trim
скорость балансировки
rate of turn
скорость разворота
rate of yaw
скорость рыскания
reception of telephony
прием телефонных сообщений
record of amendments
лист учета поправок
record of revisions
внесение поправок
regularity of operations
регулярность полетов
relay of messages
передача сообщений
release of control
передача управления
removal of aircraft
удаление воздушного судна
removal of limitations
отмена ограничений
replacement of parts
замена деталей
representative of a carrier
представитель перевозчика
reservation of a seat
бронирование места
retirement of aircraft
списание воздушного судна
right - of - entry
преимущественное право входа
roll out of the turn
выходить из разворота
rules of the air
правила полетов
safe handling of an aircraft
безопасное управление воздушным судном
second freedom of the air
вторая степень свободы воздуха
second type of occurence
второй тип события
selection of engine mode
выбор режима работы двигателя
sequence of fuel usage
очередность выработки топлива
(по группам баков) sequence of operation
последовательность выполнения операций
showers of rain and snow
ливневый дождь со снегом
simultaneous use of runways
одновременная эксплуатация нескольких ВПП
site of occurrence
место происшествия
slope of level
наклон кривой уровня
(шумов) source of danger
источник опасности
Standing Committee of Performance
Постоянный комитет по летно-техническим характеристикам
start of leveloff
начало выравнивания
start of takeoff
начало разбега при взлете
state of aircraft manufacture
государство - изготовитель воздушного судна
state of discharge
степень разряженности
(аккумулятора) state of emergency
аварийное состояние
state of occurence
государство места события
state of transit
государство транзита
steadiness of approach
устойчивость при заходе на посадку
steady rate of climb
установившаяся скорость набора высоты
structure of fronts
структура атмосферных фронтов
submission of a flight plan
представление плана полета
system of monitoring visual aids
система контроля за работой визуальных средств
(на аэродроме) system of units
система единиц
(измерения) table of cruising levels
таблица крейсерских эшелонов
table of intensity settings
таблица регулировки интенсивности
table of limits
таблица ограничений
table of tolerance
таблица допусков
take out of service
снимать с эксплуатации
target level of safety
заданный уровень безопасности полетов
temporary loss of control
временная потеря управляемости
termination of control
прекращение диспетчерского обслуживания
theory of flight
теория полета
time of lag
время запаздывания
time of origin
время отправления
titl of the gyro
завал гироскопа
top of climb
конечный участок набора высоты
transfer of control
передача диспетчерского управления
transmission of telephony
передача радиотелефонных сообщений
transmit on frequency of
вести передачу на частоте
triangle of velocities
треугольник скоростей
under any kind of engine failure
при любом отказе двигателя
uneven use of fuel
неравномерная выработка топлива
unit of measurement
единица измерения
velocity of sound
скорость звука
wall of overpressure
фронт избыточного давления
warn of danger
предупреждать об опасности
within the frame of
в пределах
working language of ICAO
рабочий язык ИКАО
zone of intersection
зона пересечения
zone of silence
зона молчания

English-Russian aviation dictionary > of
12 GED

1) Геология: Global Element Distribution

2) Военный термин: gas engine driven, general educational development, general engineering development, group on electronic devices

3) Шутливое выражение: Git Er Done

4) Юридический термин: general equivalency diploma

5) Грубое выражение: Get Even Dumber

6) Сокращение: General Education Diploma, gasoline-engine driven

7) Образование: General Education Development, Good Enough Diploma

8) Расширение файла: Graphics editor file (EnerGraphics), Graphics (Graphic Environment Document, Arts & Letters)

9) Должность: General Education Degree (High School non-graduation degree)

10) Аэропорты: Georgetown, Delaware USA

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > GED
13 ged

1) Геология: Global Element Distribution

2) Военный термин: gas engine driven, general educational development, general engineering development, group on electronic devices

3) Шутливое выражение: Git Er Done

4) Юридический термин: general equivalency diploma

5) Грубое выражение: Get Even Dumber

6) Сокращение: General Education Diploma, gasoline-engine driven

7) Образование: General Education Development, Good Enough Diploma

8) Расширение файла: Graphics editor file (EnerGraphics), Graphics (Graphic Environment Document, Arts & Letters)

9) Должность: General Education Degree (High School non-graduation degree)

10) Аэропорты: Georgetown, Delaware USA

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > ged
14 título

Del verbo titular: ( conjugate titular) \ \
titulo es: \ \
1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo

tituló es: \ \
3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) pretérito indicativo
Multiple Entries: titular título
titular 1 adjetivo ‹médico/profesor› permanent ■ sustantivo masculino y femenino (de pasaporte, cuenta, cargo) holder ■ sustantivo masculino
a) ( en periódico) headline

b) (Rad, TV) main story;

◊ los títuloes the main stories, the news headlines

titular 2 ( conjugate titular) verbo transitivo ‹ obra›:
◊ su novela titulada `Julia' his novel called o (frml) entitled `Julia'
titularse verbo pronominal 1 [obra/película] to be called, be entitled (frml) 2 (Educ) to graduate, get one's degree; títulose EN/DE algo to graduate in/as sth
título sustantivo masculino 1 ( en general) title;
◊ un poema que lleva por título … a poem called o (frml) entitled …;
el título de campeón juvenil the junior title; título nobiliario title; a título de: a título de introducción by way of introduction; asiste a título de observador he's attending as an observer 2 (Educ) degree; ( diploma) certificate;
◊ título académico academic qualification;
título universitario university degree, college degree (AmE)
título sustantivo masculino
1 (de una obra, una ley) title
2 Educ (cualificación) qualification (universitario) degree (documento impreso) degree certificate 3 título nobiliario, title
4 Cine títulos de crédito, credits Locuciones: a título de, by way of
a título de curiosidad, as a matter of interest ' título' also found in these entries: Spanish: concepto - conquistar - detentar - ducado - excelencia - existente - infante - nobiliaria - nobiliario - ostentar - poner - subtítulo - aspirante - barón - calificar - capacitar - ceder - conseguir - convalidar - despojar - dignidad - diplomarse - disputar - el - goce - grado - habilitar - heredar - llamar - pasar - poseedor - poseer - renunciar - revalidar - rótulo - tratamiento - usurpar English: approval - defending champion - degree - esquire - heading - honourable - knighthood - lady - liability - qualification - qualify - rubric - saint - second - share certificate - sir - title - title track - unqualified - caption - cost - dame - date - debar - defending - elevate - fellowship - graduate - knight - QC - right - succeed - untrained

English-spanish dictionary > título
15 ordinary

ordinary [ˈɔ:dnrɪ]

1. adjective

a. ( = usual) habituel ; [clothes] de tous les jours

• my ordinary grocer's mon épicerie habituelle

• in the ordinary way d'ordinaire

b. ( = unexceptional) [person, day] ordinaire ; [intelligence, reader] moyen

• mine was a fairly ordinary childhood j'ai eu une enfance assez ordinaire

• ordinary people le commun des mortels

• ordinary Germans l'Allemand m moyen

• she's no ordinary woman c'est une femme extraordinaire

2. noun

ordinaire m

• out of the ordinary hors du commun

• nothing out of the ordinary rien d'exceptionnel

3. compounds

► ordinary degree noun (British) ≈ licence f

━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━

ORDINARY DEGREE

Un ordinary degree est un diplôme moins prestigieux que l'« honours degree » et que l'on obtient en général après trois années d'études universitaires. Il peut aussi être décerné en cas d'échec à l'« honours degree ». → HONOURS DEGREE

* * *
['ɔːdənrɪ], US ['ɔːrdənerɪ] 1.
noun ( normal)

to be out of the ordinary — sortir de l'ordinaire
2.
adjective

1) ( normal) [clothes] de tous les jours (after n); [citizen, life, family] ordinaire

to be just ordinary people — n'être que des gens bien ordinaires

this is no ordinary case — c'est un cas inhabituel

in the ordinary way — normalement

2) ( average) [consumer, family] moyen/-enne

3) péj ( uninspiring)

very ordinary — très quelconque

English-French dictionary > ordinary
16 term

1) термин

as the term itself implies — как вытекает из самого термина

in general terms — в общих чертах

2) мат. член; терм

term with a higher exponent — старший член

term outside the integral — внеинтегральный член

term with a higher exponent — старший член

term outside the integral — внеинтегральный член

to add term by term — складывать почленно

to tolerate terms — допускать присутствие членов

3) элемент; составляющая

4) срок

for a term of — сроком на

term expires — срок истекает

5) условие (напр. контракта)

6) мат. одночлен

•

- absolute term of equation

- absolute term

- algebraic term

- anharmonic term

- anormalous term

- arithmetical term

- atomic term

- basic switching term

- basic term

- bound term

- boundary term

- bounded term

- bracketed term

- closed term

- common term

- compensating term

- constant term

- control-action term

- correction term

- cosine term

- coupling term

- cubic term

- cumulative term

- defining term

- degenerate term

- dissipative term

- disturbance term

- dominant term

- don't care term

- dual term

- dynamic term

- elementary term

- even term

- even-degree term

- expansion term

- exponential term

- extreme term

- first term

- fixed term

- formal term

- general term

- generic term

- goniometric term

- ground term

- higher-order term

- highest degree term

- highest term

- hold term

- initial term

- integer rational term

- interaction term

- intermediate term

- known term

- labeled term

- leading term

- left-hand term

- level term

- linear term

- logical term

- long term

- long-periodic term

- lowest term of a polynomial

- lowest term

- major term

- maximum term

- medium term

- minor term

- mixed term

- multiplet term

- neglected term

- next following term

- nonlinear term

- nonzero term

- n-th order term
- n-th term of expansion
- odd-degree term

- omitted term

- open term

- pairing term

- perturbation term

- plain term

- positive term

- primitive recursive term

- primitive term

- principal term

- quadratic term

- quartic term

- reducible term

- redundant term

- regular term

- remainder term

- right-hand term

- rounded corrective term

- running term

- second-order interaction term

- second-order term

- secular term

- self-defining term

- short term

- single term

- smaller term

- smoothing term

- spectral term

- squared term

- term of a proportion

- term of conjunction

- term of disjunction

- term of division

- term of equation

- term of lease

- term of proportion

- term of ratio

- term of series

- terms of contract

- third-order interaction term
- totally labeled term
- transcendental term

- transition term

- trigonometric term

- triplet term

- truncation term

- undefinable term

- variableless term

English-Russian scientific dictionary > term
17 open

1. adjective
1) offen

with the window open — bei geöffnetem Fenster

be [wide/half] open — [weit/halb] offen stehen

hold the door open [for somebody] — [jemandem] die Tür aufhalten

push/pull/kick the door open — die Tür aufstoßen/aufziehen/eintreten

force something open — etwas mit Gewalt öffnen

with one's mouth open — mit offenem Mund

have one's eyes open — die Augen geöffnet haben

[not] be able to keep one's eyes open — [nicht mehr] die Augen offenhalten können; see also academic.ru/26032/eye">eye 1. 1)

2) (unconfined) offen [Gelände, Feuer]

on the open road — auf freier Strecke

in the open air — im Freien

3) (ready for business or use)

be open — [Laden, Museum, Bank usw.:] geöffnet sein

‘open’/‘open on Sundays’ — "geöffnet"/"Sonntags geöffnet"

4) (accessible) offen; öffentlich [Treffen, Rennen]; (available) frei [Stelle]; freibleibend [Angebot]

lay open — offen legen [Plan]

be open to the public — für die Öffentlichkeit zugänglich sein

the offer remains open until the end of the month — das Angebot bleibt bestehen od. gilt noch bis Ende des Monats

keep a position open for somebody — jemandem eine Stelle freihalten

5)

be open to — (exposed to) ausgesetzt sein (+ Dat.) [Wind, Sturm]; (receptive to) offen sein für [Ratschlag, andere Meinung, Vorschlag]

I hope to sell it for £1,000, but I am open to offers — ich möchte es für 1 000 Pfund verkaufen, aber ich lasse mit mir handeln

lay oneself [wide] open to criticism — etc. sich der Kritik usw. aussetzen

be open to question/doubt/argument — fraglich/zweifelhaft/umstritten sein

6) (undecided) offen

have an open mind about or on something — einer Sache gegenüber aufgeschlossen sein

with an open mind — aufgeschlossen

leave something open — etwas offen lassen

7) (undisguised, manifest) unverhohlen [Bewunderung, Hass]; offen [Verachtung, Empörung, Widerstand]; offensichtlich [Spaltung, Zwiespalt]

open war/warfare — offener Krieg/Kampf

8) (frank) offen [Wesen, Streit, Abstimmung, Gesicht]; (not secret) öffentlich [Wahl]

be open [about something/with somebody] — [in Bezug auf etwas (Akk.) /gegenüber jemandem] offen sein

9) (expanded, unfolded) offen, geöffnet [Pore, Regenschirm]; aufgeblüht [Blume, Knospe]; aufgeschlagen [Zeitung, Landkarte, Stadtplan]

somebody/something is an open book [to somebody] — (fig.) jemand/etwas ist ein aufgeschlagenes od. offenes Buch [für jemanden]
2. noun
in the open — (outdoors) unter freiem Himmel

[out] in the open — (fig.) [öffentlich] bekannt

come [out] into the open — (fig.) (become obvious) herauskommen (ugs.); (speak out) offen sprechen

bring something [out] into the open — (fig.) etwas an die Öffentlichkeit bringen
3. transitive verb
1) öffnen; aufmachen (ugs.)

open something with a key — etwas aufschließen

2) (allow access to)

open something [to somebody/something] — etwas öffnen [für jemanden/etwas]; (fig.) [jemandem/einer Sache] etwas öffnen

open something to the public — etwas der Öffentlichkeit (Dat.) zugänglich machen

3) (establish) eröffnen [Konferenz, Kampagne, Diskussion, Laden]; beginnen [Verhandlungen, Krieg, Spiel]; (declare open) eröffnen [Gebäude usw.]

open an account — ein Konto eröffnen

open fire [on somebody/something] — das Feuer [auf jemanden/etwas] eröffnen

4) (unfold, spread out) aufschlagen [Zeitung, Landkarte, Stadtplan, Buch]; aufspannen, öffnen [Schirm]; öffnen [Fallschirm, Poren]

open one's arms [wide] — die od. seine Arme [weit] ausbreiten

5) (reveal, expose)

something opens new horizons/a new world to somebody — (fig.) etwas eröffnet jemandem neue Horizonte/eine neue Welt

6) (make more receptive)

open one's heart or mind to somebody/something — sich jemandem/einer Sache öffnen

open somebody's mind to something — jemandem etwas nahe bringen
4. intransitive verb
1) sich öffnen; aufgehen; [Spalt, Kluft:] sich auftun

‘Doors open at 7 p.m.’ — "Einlass ab 19 Uhr"

open inwards/outwards — nach innen/außen aufgehen

the door would not open — die Tür ging nicht auf od. ließ sich nicht öffnen

his eyes opened wide — er riss die Augen weit auf

open into/on to something — zu etwas führen

the kitchen opens into the living room — die Küche hat eine Tür zum Wohnzimmer

2) (become open to customers) öffnen; aufmachen (ugs.); (start trading etc.) eröffnet werden

the shop does not open on Sundays — der Laden ist sonntags geschlossen

3) (make a start) beginnen; [Ausstellung:] eröffnet werden

Phrasal Verbs:

- open out

- open up
•• Cultural note:
Open University - OU

Eine britische Fernuniversität, die 1969 gegründet wurde und vor allem Berufstätigen im Fernstudium Kurse auf verschiedenem Niveau bietet, insbesondere wissenschaftliche und berufliche Fortbildungsprogramme. Studenten jeder Altersgruppe, selbst solche ohne die erforderlichen Schulabschlüsse, können das Studium nach vier oder fünf Jahren mit dem Bachelor's degree und dem Master's degree abschließen. Teilnehmer studieren von zu Hause - teilweise mittels audiovisueller Medien - schicken ihre Arbeit ein und erhalten eine Rückantwort von ihrem tutor (Dozent). Studenten können auch am Direktunterricht mit wöchentlichen Seminaren in Studienzentren und an Sommerschulen teilnehmen. Nach dem erfolgreichen Vorbild der Open University gibt es inzwischen auch in anderen Teilen der Welt ähnliche Fortbildungsprogramme

* * *
['əupən] 1. adjective
1) (not shut, allowing entry or exit: an open box; The gate is wide open.) offen

2) (allowing the inside to be seen: an open book.) offen

3) (ready for business etc: The shop is open on Sunday afternoons; After the fog had cleared, the airport was soon open again; The gardens are open to the public.) geöffnet

4) (not kept secret: an open show of affection.) offen

5) (frank: He was very open with me about his work.) offen

6) (still being considered etc: Leave the matter open.) offen

7) (empty, with no trees, buildings etc: I like to be out in the open country; an open space.) offen
2. verb
1) (to make or become open: He opened the door; The door opened; The new shop opened last week.) öffnen

2) (to begin: He opened the meeting with a speech of welcome.) eröffnen

•

- opener
- opening
- openly
- open-air
- open-minded
- open-plan
- be an open secret
- bring something out into the open
- bring out into the open
- in the open
- in the open air
- keep/have an open mind
- open on to
- the open sea
- open to
- open up
- with open arms
* * *

open

[ˈəʊp^ən, AM ˈoʊ-]

I. adj

1. inv (not closed) container, eyes, garment, door, window offen, auf präd; pass also geöffnet, für den Verkehr freigegeben; book aufgeschlagen; flower aufgeblüht, erblüht; map auseinandergefaltet

she was breathing through her \open mouth sie atmete durch den offenen Mund

excuse me, your fly is \open entschuldige, aber dein Hosenstall steht offen fam

I had difficulty keeping my eyes \open ich konnte die Augen kaum noch offenhalten

to welcome sb with \open arms ( fig) jdn mit offenen Armen empfangen [o aufnehmen]

\open boat Boot nt ohne Verdeck

to do sth with one's eyes \open etw ganz bewusst tun

I got into this job with my eyes \open als ich diesen Job angenommen habe, war mir klar, was mich erwartet

an \open wound eine offene Wunde

wide \open [sperrangel]weit geöffnet

to burst \open bag, case aufgehen

to push sth \open etw aufstoßen; (violently) etw mit Gewalt öffnen

2. inv, pred (for customers, visitors) shop, bar, museum geöffnet, offen

is the supermarket \open yet? hat der Supermarkt schon auf?

is that new computer store \open for business yet? hat dieser neue Computerladen schon aufgemacht?

to declare sth for \open etw für eröffnet erklären

3. inv (not yet decided) case, decision, question offen

the race is still wide \open bei dem Rennen ist noch alles drin

the price is \open to negotiation über den Preis kann noch verhandelt werden

to be \open to interpretation Interpretationsspielraum bieten

an \open matter eine schwebende Angelegenheit [o offene Sache]

an \open mind eine unvoreingenommene Einstellung

to have/keep an \open mind unvoreingenommen [o objektiv] sein/bleiben

she has a very \open mind about new things sie steht neuen Dingen sehr aufgeschlossen gegenüber

to keep one's options \open sich dat alle Möglichkeiten offenhalten

an \open question eine offene Frage

\open ticket Ticket nt mit offenem Reisedatum

to leave sth \open etw offenlassen

4. inv (not enclosed) offen

to be in the \open air an der frischen Luft sein

to get out in the \open air an die frische Luft gehen

\open country unbebautes Land

\open field freies Feld

on the \open road auf freier Strecke

on the \open sea auf hoher See [o dem offenem Meer

5. inv (accessible to all) offen, öffentlich zugänglich

this library is not \open to the general public dies ist keine öffentliche Bibliothek

the competition is \open to anyone over the age of sixteen an dem Wettbewerb kann jeder teilnehmen, der älter als 16 Jahre ist

the job is \open to all applicants die Stelle steht allen Bewerbern offen

to have \open access to sth freien Zugang zu etw dat haben

in \open court in öffentlicher Verhandlung

an \open discussion eine öffentliche Diskussion

6. inv (not concealed) offen

\open hostility offene Feindschaft

\open resentment unverhohlene Abneigung

an \open scandal ein öffentlicher Skandal

to lay sth \open etw offenlegen

7. inv, pred (frank) person offen

he is quite \open about his weaknesses er spricht freimütig über seine Schwächen

▪ to be \open with sb offen zu jdm sein

an \open person ein offener [o aufrichtiger] Mensch

8. inv, pred (willing to accept)

▪ to be \open to sth für etw akk offen sein

\open to offers Angebote werden entgegengenommen

the company is \open to offers for the empty factory die Firma zieht Angebote für die leer stehende Fabrik in Betracht

to be \open to advice/new ideas/suggestions Ratschlägen/neuen Ideen/Vorschlägen gegenüber aufgeschlossen [o offen] sein

to be \open to bribes/offers/persuasion für Bestechung/Angebote/Überredung zugänglich sein

9. inv (available) frei, verfügbar; offer freibleibend

our offer will be kept \open until the end of the week unser Angebot gilt noch [o bleibt noch bestehen] bis Ende der Woche

there are still lots of opportunities \open to you dir stehen noch viele Möglichkeiten offen

it is \open to you to accept or to refuse the offer es steht Ihnen frei, das Angebot anzunehmen oder abzulehnen

the line is \open now die Leitung ist jetzt frei

to keep a bank account \open ein Bankkonto [weiterhin] bestehen lassen

\open time verfügbare Zeit

\open vacancies offene [o freie] Stellen

10. inv, pred (exposed) offen, ungeschützt; MIL ungedeckt, ohne Deckung

▪ to be \open to sth etw dat ausgesetzt sein

his macho attitude leaves him \open to ridicule mit seinem Machogehabe gibt er sich selbst der Lächerlichkeit preis

to be \open to attack Angriffen ausgesetzt sein

to be \open to criticism kritisierbar sein

to be \open to doubt zweifelhaft [o fraglich] sein

to be \open to the enemy feindlichem Zugriff unterliegen

to lay oneself \open to sth sich akk etw dat aussetzen

11. inv SPORT offen

\open champion Sieger(in) m(f) einer offenen Meisterschaft

\open championship offene Meisterschaften pl

12. inv SPORT (unprotected) game, style of play frei, ungedeckt

13. inv (letting in air) durchlässig, porös

an \open screen ein Drahtgitter [o Drahtnetz] nt

an \open weave eine lockere Webart

14. inv MUS

\open note Grundton m

\open pipe offene [Orgel]pfeife

\open string leere Saite

15. inv ELEC

\open circuit unterbrochener Stromkreislauf

16. inv MED (not constipated) bowels nicht verstopft, frei

17. inv BRIT FIN (not crossed)

\open cheque Barscheck m, Barcheck m SCHWEIZ

18. inv (free of ice) port, river eisfrei; weather, winter frostfrei

19. LING offen

\open syllable offene Silbe

\open vowel offener Vokal

20. MATH

\open set offene Menge

21.

▶ to be an \open book person [wie] ein aufgeschlagenes [o offenes] Buch sein; thing ein Kinderspiel sein

computers are an \open book to him mit Computern hat er überhaupt kein Probleme

II. vi

1. (from closed) sich akk öffnen, aufgehen

the door \opens much more easily now die Tür lässt sich jetzt viel leichter öffnen

the flowers \open in the morning die Blüten öffnen sich am Morgen

I can't get the door to \open! ich kann die Tür nicht aufkriegen!

2. (give access)

▪ to \open onto sth [direkt] zu etw dat führen

the door \opens into the garden die Tür führt direkt in den Garten

▪ to \open off sth zu etw dat hinführen

the small path \opened off the main road der schmale Weg führte auf die Hauptstraße

3. (for service) öffnen, aufmachen fam

the cafe \opens at ten o'clock das Café öffnet um zehn Uhr

4. (start) piece of writing or music, story beginnen, anfangen; film anlaufen; play Premiere haben

the trial \opens/the Olympic Games \open tomorrow der Prozess wird/die Olympischen Spiele werden morgen eröffnet

the film \opens in New York next week der Film läuft nächste Woche in New York an

who's going to \open? (in cards) wer kommt raus?, wer hat das Ausspiel?; STOCKEX

the shares \opened lower bei Börsenbeginn standen die Aktien niedriger

5. (become visible) sich akk zeigen

the valley \opened before them das Tal tat sich vor ihnen auf

6. (start new business) eröffnen, aufmachen, aufgehen SCHWEIZ

III. n

1. no pl (out of doors)

▪ [out] in the \open draußen; (in the open air) im Freien

to camp in the \open unter freiem Himmel nächtigen

2. no pl (not secret)

to bring sth out into the \open etw publikmachen [o an die Öffentlichkeit bringen]

to come out into the \open ans Licht kommen, auskommen SCHWEIZ, ruchbar werden geh

to get sth [out] in[to] the \open etw [offen] zur Sprache bringen [o ansprechen

3. SPORT (competition)

▪ the O\open [offene] Meisterschaft, Open nt fachspr

IV. vt

1. (change from closed)

to \open a book/magazine/newspaper ein Buch/ein Magazin/eine Zeitung aufschlagen

to \open a box/window/bottle eine Dose/ein Fenster/eine Flasche aufmachen [o öffnen]

to \open the curtains [or drapes] die Vorhänge aufziehen

to \open the door [or doors] to sth ( fig) neue Perspektiven [o Möglichkeiten] für etw akk eröffnen

to \open one's eyes seine Augen öffnen [o aufmachen]

to \open one's home to sb jdn bei sich dat aufnehmen

to \open a letter/file einen Brief/eine Akte öffnen

to \open a map eine [Straßen]karte auffalten

to \open one's mouth ( also fig) den Mund aufmachen, etw ausplaudern [o SCHWEIZ ausbringen]

to \open a vein ( hum) zum Strick greifen hum

2. (begin)

to \open fire MIL das Feuer eröffnen

to \open a meeting/rally ein Treffen/eine Kundgebung eröffnen

to \open negotiations in Verhandlungen eintreten

to \open the proceedings das Verfahren eröffnen

3. (set up)

to \open a bank account ein Konto einrichten [o eröffnen]

to \open a business/branch ein Geschäft/eine Zweigstelle eröffnen [o aufmachen

4. (for customers, visitors) öffnen

the company will open its doors for business next month die Firma wird im nächsten Monat eröffnet

to \open a bakery/book store/restaurant eine Bäckerei/einen Buchladen/ein Restaurant öffnen

5. (declare ready for use)

to \open a building ein Gebäude einweihen

to \open a road/tunnel eine Straße/einen Tunnel für den Verkehr freigeben

6. (break new ground)

▪ to \open sth etw erschließen

to \open a new field of science wissenschaftliches Neuland erschließen

7. (evacuate)

to \open one's bowels den Darm entleeren

8. (clear blockages)

▪ to \open sth:

the security team \opened a way through the crowd for the president das Sicherheitsteam bahnte dem Präsidenten einen Weg durch die Menge

to \open a canal einen Kanal passierbar machen

to \open a pipe ein Rohr durchgängig machen

to \open the view den Blick [o die Sicht] ermöglichen

9.

▶ to \open sb's eyes to sb/sth jdm die Augen über jdn/etw öffnen

▶ to \open the floodgates [to sb/sth] [jdm/etw] Tür und Tor öffnen pej

▶ to \open one's heart to sb jdm sein Herz ausschütten, sich akk jdm anvertrauen

▶ to \open one's mind offener [o SCHWEIZ meist aufgeschlossener] werden

* * *
['əUpən]
1. adj

1) door, bottle, book, eye, flower etc offen, auf pred, geöffnet; circuit offen; lines of communication frei; wound etc offen

to keep/hold the door open — die Tür offen lassen or auflassen/offen halten or aufhalten

to fling or throw the door open —

I can't keep my eyes open — ich kann die Augen nicht offen halten or aufhalten

the window flew open —

the thugs split his head open — die Schläger brachten ihm eine klaffende Wunde am Kopf bei

his defeat blew the competition wide open — durch seine Niederlage war der Ausgang des Wettbewerbs weit offen

a shirt open at the neck — ein am Hals offenes Hemd

2) (= open for business shop, bank etc) geöffnet

the baker/baker's shop is open — der Bäcker hat/der Bäckerladen ist or hat geöffnet or hat auf (inf)

3) (= not enclosed) offen; country, ground offen, frei; view frei; carriage, car offen, ohne Verdeck

in the open air — im Freien

on open ground — auf offenem or freiem Gelände

4) (= not blocked) Ling offen; road, canal, pores offen, frei (to für), geöffnet; rail track, river frei (to für); (MUS) string leer; pipe offen

open note — Grundton m

have you had your bowels open today? ( Med form ) — haben Sie heute Stuhlgang gehabt?

open to traffic/shipping — für den Verkehr/die Schifffahrt freigegeben

"road open to traffic" — "Durchfahrt frei"

5) (= officially in use) building eingeweiht; road, bridge (offiziell) freigegeben; exhibition eröffnet

to declare sth open — etw einweihen/freigeben/für eröffnet erklären

6) (= not restricted, accessible) letter, scholarship offen; market, competition offen, frei; (= public) meeting, trial öffentlich

to be open to sb (competition, membership, possibility) — jdm offenstehen; (admission) jdm freistehen; (place) für jdn geöffnet sein; (park)

my house is always open to you — mein Haus steht dir immer offen

the director's door is always open — die Tür des Direktors ist immer offen

in open court (Jur) — in öffentlicher Verhandlung

open to the public — der Öffentlichkeit zugänglich

park open to the public — öffentlicher Park

open forum — öffentliches Forum

she gave us an open invitation to visit — sie lud uns ein, jederzeit bei ihr vorbeizukommen

an unlocked window is an open invitation to a thief — ein unverschlossenes Fenster lädt geradezu zum Diebstahl ein

7)

to be open to advice/suggestions/ideas — Ratschlägen/Vorschlägen/Ideen zugänglich sein or gegenüber offen sein

I'm open to persuasion — ich lasse mich gern überreden

I'm open to offers — ich lasse gern mit mir handeln or reden

open to bribes — Bestechungen zugänglich

8) (= not filled) evening, time frei; job, post frei, offen

9) (= not concealed) campaign, secret, resistance offen; hostility offen, unverhüllt

10) (= not decided or settled) question offen, ungeklärt, ungelöst

they left the matter open — sie ließen die Angelegenheit offen or ungeklärt

to keep one's options open — es offenlassen

to keep an open mind — alles offenlassen; (judge, jury) unvoreingenommen sein

to have an open mind on sth — einer Sache (dat) aufgeschlossen gegenüberstehen

keep your mind open to new suggestions — verschließen Sie sich neuen Vorschlägen nicht

to be open to debate — zur Debatte stehen

11) (= exposed, not protected) (MIL) town offen; coast ungeschützt

a position open to attack — eine exponierte or leicht angreifbare Position

open to the elements — Wind und Wetter ausgesetzt

to be open to criticism/attack — der Kritik/Angriffen ausgesetzt sein

to lay oneself open to criticism/attack — sich der Kritik/Angriffen aussetzen

he left himself wide open to criticism — er setzte sich breiter Kritik aus

a theory open to criticism — eine anfechtbare Theorie

to be open to abuse — sich leicht missbrauchen lassen

to be open to doubt — anzweifelbar sein

12) weave locker; fabric, pattern durchbrochen

13) (= frank) character, face, person offen, aufrichtig

he was open with us — er war ganz offen mit uns

2. n

it's all out in the open now — nun ist alles heraus (inf), nun ist es alles zur Sprache gekommen

to bring sth out into the open — mit etw nicht länger hinterm Berg halten

to come out into the open ( fig, person ) — Farbe bekennen, sich erklären; (affair)

he eventually came out into the open about what he meant to do — er rückte endlich mit der Sprache heraus (inf), was er tun wollte

to force sb out into the open — jdn zwingen, sich zu stellen; (fig) jdn zwingen, Farbe zu bekennen

to force sth out into the open (fig) — etw zur Sprache bringen

3. vt

1) door, mouth, bottle, letter etc öffnen, aufmachen (inf); book aufschlagen, öffnen; newspaper aufschlagen; throttle, circuit öffnen

he didn't open his mouth once — er hat kein einziges Mal den Mund aufgemacht (inf)

to open ranks (Mil) — weg- or abtreten

2) (officially) exhibition eröffnen; building einweihen; motorway (für den Verkehr) freigeben

3) region erschließen

they opened a road through the mountains — durch die Berge wurde eine Straße gebaut

4) (= reveal, unfold) öffnen

to open one's heart to sb — sich jdm eröffnen (geh), jdm sein Herz aufschließen (geh)

to open sb's mind — jds Horizont erweitern

open your mind to new possibilities — öffnen Sie sich (dat) den Blick für neue Möglichkeiten

it had opened new horizons for him — dadurch erschlossen sich ihm neue Horizonte

5) (= start) case, trial, account eröffnen; debate, conversation etc beginnen

6) (= set up) shop eröffnen, aufmachen (inf); school einrichten

7) (MED) pores öffnen

to open the bowels (person) — Stuhlgang haben; (medicine) abführen

8)

to open fire (Mil) — das Feuer eröffnen (on auf +acc )

4. vi

1) aufgehen; (eyes) sich öffnen; (door, flower, book, wound, pores, window) sich öffnen, aufgehen

I couldn't get the box/bottle to open — ich habe die Schachtel/Flasche nicht aufbekommen

it won't open — es geht nicht auf

2) (shop, museum) öffnen, aufmachen

3) (= afford access door) führen (into in +acc)

the two rooms open into one another — diese zwei Zimmer sind durch eine Tür verbunden

See:

→ also open on to

4) (= start) beginnen (with mit); (CARDS, CHESS) eröffnen

the play opens next week — das Stück wird ab nächster Woche gegeben

when the play opened in Hull — bei der ersten Vorstellung in Hull

* * *

open [ˈəʊpən]

A s

1. the open

a) das offene Land,

b) die offene oder hohe See,

c) der freie Himmel:

in the open im Freien, unter freiem Himmel, in der freien Natur, an der frischen Luft, (Bergbau) über Tag

2. the open die Öffentlichkeit:

bring into the open an die Öffentlichkeit bringen;

come into the open fig

a) sich zeigen, hervorkommen,

b) sich erklären, offen reden, Farbe bekennen,

c) an die Öffentlichkeit treten ( with sth mit etwas);

draw sb into the open jemanden hervorlocken, jemanden aus seinem Versteck locken

3. besonders Golf, Tennis: (für Amateure und Profis) offenes Turnier:

the French Open pl die French Open pl

B adj (adv openly)

1. allg offen (Buch, Fenster, Flasche etc):

sleep with the window open bei offenem Fenster schlafen;

open chain CHEM offene Kette;

open prison JUR offenes Gefängnis;

open visibility SCHIFF klare Sicht;

the door is open die Tür ist oder steht offen, die Tür ist geöffnet oder umg auf;

cut open aufschneiden;

get open eine Tür etc aufbekommen, -bringen;

hold the door open for sb jemandem die Tür aufhalten;

keep ( oder leave) open eine Tür etc auflassen;

keep one’s eyes open fig die Augen offen halten;

pull open eine Schublade etc aufziehen;

throw open eine Tür etc aufreißen, -stoßen ( → B 7);

with open eyes mit offenen Augen (a. fig); → arm¹ Bes Redew, book A 1, bowel A 1 b, door Bes Redew, order A 5, punctuation 1

2. MED offen (Tuberkulose, Wunde etc)

3. offen, frei, zugänglich:

open country offenes Gelände;

open field freies Feld;

open sea offenes Meer, hohe See;

open spaces öffentliche Plätze (Parkanlagen etc); → air¹ A 1

4. frei, offen:

an open car ein offener Wagen;

open motor ELEK offener oder ungeschützter Motor;

lay open bloß-, freilegen ( → B 11)

5. offen, eisfrei (Hafen, Wasser etc):

open winter frostfreier Winter

6. geöffnet, offen, präd auch auf umg:

the shop ( museum, etc) is open;

the lines are open from … to … Sie können von … bis … anrufen;

we are open wir haben geöffnet

7. fig offen (to für), öffentlich, (jedem) zugänglich:

be open to offenstehen (dat);

throw open

a) der Öffentlichkeit zugänglich machen,

b) zugänglich machen (to dat, für)( → B 1);

open tournament → A 3;

open competition freier Wettbewerb;

open letter offener Brief;

open market WIRTSCH offener oder freier Markt;

open position freie oder offene (Arbeits)Stelle;

open sale öffentliche Versteigerung;

open session öffentliche Sitzung;

open for subscription WIRTSCH zur Zeichnung aufgelegt;

open to the public für die Öffentlichkeit zugänglich;

open to traffic für den Verkehr freigegeben;

in open court JUR in öffentlicher Sitzung oder Verhandlung

8. fig zugänglich, aufgeschlossen ( beide:

to für oder dat):

be open to suggestions für Vorschläge offen sein; → bribery, conviction 2, mind A 2

9. fig ausgesetzt, unterworfen ( beide:

to der Kritik etc):

open to question anfechtbar;

open to temptation anfällig gegen die Versuchung;

lay o.s. open to criticism sich der Kritik aussetzen;

leave o.s. wide open to sb sich jemandem gegenüber eine (große) Blöße geben;

that is open to argument darüber lässt sich streiten;

be open to different interpretations verschiedene Deutungen zulassen; → misconstruction 1

10. offen(kundig), unverhüllt (Verachtung etc):

an open secret ein offenes Geheimnis

11. offen, freimütig:

I will be open with you ich will ganz offen mit Ihnen reden;

open and aboveboard offen und ehrlich;

lay open

a) offen darlegen,

b) aufdecken, enthüllen ( → B 4)

12. unentschieden, offen (Frage, Kampf etc)

13. fig frei (ohne Verbote):

open pattern JUR ungeschütztes Muster;

open season Jagd-, Fischzeit f (Ggs Schonzeit)

14. frei (Zeit):

keep a day open sich einen Tag freihalten

15. lückenhaft (Gebiss etc):

open population geringe Bevölkerungsdichte

16. durchbrochen (Gewebe, Handarbeit)

17. WIRTSCH laufend (Konto, Kredit, Rechnung):

open cheque Br Barscheck m

18. LING offen (Silbe, Vokal):

open consonant Reibelaut m

19. MUS

a) weit (Lage, Satz)

b) leer (Saite etc):

open harmony weiter Satz;

open note Grundton m (einer Saite etc)

20. TYPO licht:

open matter lichter oder weit durchschossener Satz;

open type Konturschrift f

C v/t

1. allg öffnen, aufmachen, die Augen, ein Buch auch aufschlagen:

open the circuit ELEK den Stromkreis ausschalten oder unterbrechen;

open one’s mouth fig den Mund aufmachen; → bowel A 1 b, door Bes Redew

2. eröffnen ( an account WIRTSCH ein Konto; a business WIRTSCH ein Geschäft; a credit WIRTSCH einen Kredit oder ein Akkreditiv; the debate die Debatte; fire MIL das Feuer [ at, on auf akk]; a prospect eine Aussicht):

open an account auch ein Konto anlegen;

open the case JUR die Verhandlung (durch Vortrag des eigenen Standpunkts) eröffnen;

open new markets WIRTSCH neue Märkte erschließen;

open negotiations Verhandlungen anknüpfen, in Verhandlungen eintreten;

open a road to traffic eine Straße dem Verkehr übergeben;

open diplomatic relations POL diplomatische Beziehungen aufnehmen

3. aufschneiden, -stechen, öffnen ( alle auch MED)

4. Gefühle, Gedanken enthüllen, seine Absichten kundtun:

open o.s. to sb sich jemandem mitteilen; → heart Bes Redew

5. JUR in der Schwebe lassen:

open a judg(e)ment beschließen, eine nochmalige Verhandlung über eine bereits gefällte Entscheidung zuzulassen

6. besonders SCHIFF ein bisher verdecktes Objekt in Sicht bekommen

D v/i

1. sich öffnen oder auftun, aufgehen (Tür etc):

“doors open at 7 p.m.” „Einlass ab 19 Uhr“; → heaven 4

2. (to) fig sich (dem Auge, Geist etc) erschließen oder zeigen oder auftun

3. führen, gehen (Fenster, Tür)

4. fig

a) anfangen, beginnen (Börse, Schule etc)

b) öffnen, aufmachen (Laden, Büro etc)

c) anlaufen (Film), eröffnen (Ausstellung etc)

d) (einen Brief, seine Rede) beginnen ( with mit)

5. a) allg öffnen

b) das Buch aufschlagen:

let’s open at page 50

6. SCHIFF in Sicht kommen

* * *
1. adjective
1) offen

with the window open — bei geöffnetem Fenster

be [wide/half] open — [weit/halb] offen stehen

hold the door open [for somebody] — [jemandem] die Tür aufhalten

push/pull/kick the door open — die Tür aufstoßen/aufziehen/eintreten

force something open — etwas mit Gewalt öffnen

with one's mouth open — mit offenem Mund

have one's eyes open — die Augen geöffnet haben

[not] be able to keep one's eyes open — [nicht mehr] die Augen offenhalten können; see also eye 1. 1)

2) (unconfined) offen [Gelände, Feuer]

on the open road — auf freier Strecke

in the open air — im Freien

3) (ready for business or use)

be open — [Laden, Museum, Bank usw.:] geöffnet sein

‘open’/‘open on Sundays’ — "geöffnet"/"Sonntags geöffnet"

4) (accessible) offen; öffentlich [Treffen, Rennen]; (available) frei [Stelle]; freibleibend [Angebot]

lay open — offen legen [Plan]

be open to the public — für die Öffentlichkeit zugänglich sein

the offer remains open until the end of the month — das Angebot bleibt bestehen od. gilt noch bis Ende des Monats

keep a position open for somebody — jemandem eine Stelle freihalten

5)

be open to — (exposed to) ausgesetzt sein (+ Dat.) [Wind, Sturm]; (receptive to) offen sein für [Ratschlag, andere Meinung, Vorschlag]

I hope to sell it for £1,000, but I am open to offers — ich möchte es für 1 000 Pfund verkaufen, aber ich lasse mit mir handeln

lay oneself [wide] open to criticism — etc. sich der Kritik usw. aussetzen

be open to question/doubt/argument — fraglich/zweifelhaft/umstritten sein

6) (undecided) offen

have an open mind about or on something — einer Sache gegenüber aufgeschlossen sein

with an open mind — aufgeschlossen

leave something open — etwas offen lassen

7) (undisguised, manifest) unverhohlen [Bewunderung, Hass]; offen [Verachtung, Empörung, Widerstand]; offensichtlich [Spaltung, Zwiespalt]

open war/warfare — offener Krieg/Kampf

8) (frank) offen [Wesen, Streit, Abstimmung, Gesicht]; (not secret) öffentlich [Wahl]

be open [about something/with somebody] — [in Bezug auf etwas (Akk.) /gegenüber jemandem] offen sein

9) (expanded, unfolded) offen, geöffnet [Pore, Regenschirm]; aufgeblüht [Blume, Knospe]; aufgeschlagen [Zeitung, Landkarte, Stadtplan]

somebody/something is an open book [to somebody] — (fig.) jemand/etwas ist ein aufgeschlagenes od. offenes Buch [für jemanden]
2. noun
in the open — (outdoors) unter freiem Himmel

[out] in the open — (fig.) [öffentlich] bekannt

come [out] into the open — (fig.) (become obvious) herauskommen (ugs.); (speak out) offen sprechen

bring something [out] into the open — (fig.) etwas an die Öffentlichkeit bringen
3. transitive verb
1) öffnen; aufmachen (ugs.)

open something with a key — etwas aufschließen

2) (allow access to)

open something [to somebody/something] — etwas öffnen [für jemanden/etwas]; (fig.) [jemandem/einer Sache] etwas öffnen

open something to the public — etwas der Öffentlichkeit (Dat.) zugänglich machen

3) (establish) eröffnen [Konferenz, Kampagne, Diskussion, Laden]; beginnen [Verhandlungen, Krieg, Spiel]; (declare open) eröffnen [Gebäude usw.]

open an account — ein Konto eröffnen

open fire [on somebody/something] — das Feuer [auf jemanden/etwas] eröffnen

4) (unfold, spread out) aufschlagen [Zeitung, Landkarte, Stadtplan, Buch]; aufspannen, öffnen [Schirm]; öffnen [Fallschirm, Poren]

open one's arms [wide] — die od. seine Arme [weit] ausbreiten

5) (reveal, expose)

something opens new horizons/a new world to somebody — (fig.) etwas eröffnet jemandem neue Horizonte/eine neue Welt

6) (make more receptive)

open one's heart or mind to somebody/something — sich jemandem/einer Sache öffnen

open somebody's mind to something — jemandem etwas nahe bringen
4. intransitive verb
1) sich öffnen; aufgehen; [Spalt, Kluft:] sich auftun

‘Doors open at 7 p.m.’ — "Einlass ab 19 Uhr"

open inwards/outwards — nach innen/außen aufgehen

the door would not open — die Tür ging nicht auf od. ließ sich nicht öffnen

his eyes opened wide — er riss die Augen weit auf

open into/on to something — zu etwas führen

the kitchen opens into the living room — die Küche hat eine Tür zum Wohnzimmer

2) (become open to customers) öffnen; aufmachen (ugs.); (start trading etc.) eröffnet werden

the shop does not open on Sundays — der Laden ist sonntags geschlossen

3) (make a start) beginnen; [Ausstellung:] eröffnet werden

Phrasal Verbs:

- open out

- open up
•• Cultural note:
Open University - OU

Eine britische Fernuniversität, die 1969 gegründet wurde und vor allem Berufstätigen im Fernstudium Kurse auf verschiedenem Niveau bietet, insbesondere wissenschaftliche und berufliche Fortbildungsprogramme. Studenten jeder Altersgruppe, selbst solche ohne die erforderlichen Schulabschlüsse, können das Studium nach vier oder fünf Jahren mit dem Bachelor's degree und dem Master's degree abschließen. Teilnehmer studieren von zu Hause - teilweise mittels audiovisueller Medien - schicken ihre Arbeit ein und erhalten eine Rückantwort von ihrem tutor (Dozent). Studenten können auch am Direktunterricht mit wöchentlichen Seminaren in Studienzentren und an Sommerschulen teilnehmen. Nach dem erfolgreichen Vorbild der Open University gibt es inzwischen auch in anderen Teilen der Welt ähnliche Fortbildungsprogramme

* * *

(not concealed) adj.

offen adj. (not hidden) adj.

nicht geheim adj. adj.

offen (Mathematik) adj.

offen adj.

übersichtlich (Gelände) adj. (close) the meeting expr.

Sitzung eröffnen (schließen) ausdr. (up) v.

erschließen (Markt) ausdr. v.

anfangen v.

eröffnen v.

öffnen v.

English-german dictionary > open
18 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
19 certificate

̘. ̈n.səˈtɪfɪkɪt
1. сущ.
1) документ, свидетельство, сертификат baptismal certificate ≈ свидетельство о крещении death certificate ≈ свидетельство о смерти gift certificate ≈ дарственная marriage certificate ≈ свидетельство о заключении брака medical certificate ≈ медицинское заключение money-market certificate ≈ сертификат валютного рынка pilot certificate ≈ права на управление самолетом tax-free certificate ≈ свидетельство об освобождении от уплаты налогов teaching certificate ≈ лицензия на право преподавания certificate of birth ≈ свидетельство о рождении;
метрика certificate of health ≈ медицинское свидетельство
2) амер. аттестат (официальный документ о получении какого-либо образования)
3) юр. извещение о производстве по делу в суде низшей инстанции
2. гл. свидетельствовать, подтверждать, удостоверять;
выдавать письменное удостоверение удостоверение, свидетельство;
сертификат;
- gold * золотой сертификат;
- * of birth свидетельство о рождении, метрика;
- * of character рекомендация;
характеристика;
аттестация;
- * of health справка о состоянии здоровья;
- * of weight( коммерческое) весовой сертификат;
- * of quality( коммерческое) сертификат качества;
- * of origin( коммерческое) удостоверение о происхождении груза;
- * of registry( морское) судовой патент;
судовое свидетельство;
- * of seaworthiness( морское) сертификат о мореходности;
- * of airworthiness (авиация) удостоверение о годности к полету;
- * of service( военное) служебная характеристика;
- * of discharge( военное) свидетельство об увольнении со службы;
- * of capacity (американизм) (военное) аттестация на присвоение звания паспорт( оборудования) свидетельство об окончании школы или курсов;
аттестат (специальное) акт;
- * of audit акт ревизии;
- * of expenditure( американизм) акт о списании в расход( редкое) certified - * receipt voucher( специальное) засвидетельствованный оправдательный документ удостоверять, свидетельствовать;
заверять выдавать свидетельство, удостоверение, атестат;
- to * midwives выдавать свидетельства о праве заниматься акушерством (юридическое) (письменно) подтверждать (какое-л) право аттестовывать( продукцию) acceptance ~ акт приемки affiliation ~ сем.право свидетельство об установлении отцовства annuity ~ свидетельство об аннуитете auditor's ~ заключение аудитора auditor's ~ заключение ревизора average ~ мор. страх. аварийный сертификат bank ~ банковский сертификат bank ~ сертификат банка bear market ~ of deposit депозитный сертификат на рынке с понижением фондовой конъюнктуры bearer share ~ акционерный сертификат на предъявителя birth ~ свидетельство о рождении bond ~ сертификат облигации building line ~ сертификат на линию застройки burial ~ свидетельство о смерти capital ~ свидетельство о капитале certificate акт ~ аттестат ~ аттестовывать продукцию ~ выдавать письменное удостоверение;
удостоверять ~ выдавать свидетельство ~ выдавать удостоверение ~ диплом ~ паспорт (оборудования) ~ письменно заверять ~ письменно подтверждать ~ письменное удостоверение;
свидетельство;
сертификат;
certificate of birth свидетельство о рождении;
метрика ~ свидетельство ~ амер. свидетельство об окончании среднего учебного заведения;
аттестат ~ свидетельствовать ~ сертификат ~ справка ~ удостоверение, свидетельство, сертификат ~ удостоверение ~ удостоверять ~ школьный аттестат ~ issued by authorities свидетельство, выданное органом власти ~ of agricultural education свидетельство о сельскохозяйственном образовании ~ of baptism свидетельство о крещении ~ of beneficial interest свидетельство о договорной выгоде ~ письменное удостоверение;
свидетельство;
сертификат;
certificate of birth свидетельство о рождении;
метрика ~ of change of address свидетельство об изменении адреса ~ of change of name свидетельство о переименовании ~ of charges справка об уплате ~ of damage свидетельство о повреждении товара ~ of deposit депозитный сертификат ~ of discharge свидетельство об увольнении ~ of domicile прописка;
справка о месте жительства ~ of existence справка о том, что застрахованный жив ~ of export лицензия на экспорт ~ of general conduct свидетельство о поведении ~ of health медицинское свидетельство ~ of incapacity for work свидетельство о нетрудоспособности ~ of incorporation разрешение на создание корпорации ~ of incorporation свидетельство о регистрации компании ~ of indebtedness краткосрочный вексель ~ of indebtedness сертификат задолженности ~ of insurance страховое свидетельство ~ of judgment справка о судебном решении ~ of lack of means справка о потере средств к существованию ~ of land charge свидетельство об оплате земельной собственности ~ of land registration свидетельство о регистрации земельной собственности ~ of legitimacy свидетельство о законнорожденности ~ of measurement метрологический аттестат ~ of nationality свидетельство о национальности ~ of naturalization свидетельство о натурализации ~ of origin свидетельство о происхождении груза ~ of origin свидетельство подлинности ~ of pay and tax deducted справка о заработной плате и удержанном налоге ~ of posting квитанция о почтовом отправлении ~ of proprietorship свидетельство о праве собственности ~ of quality сертификат качества ~ of registration свидетельство о регистрации ~ of registry суд. судовой патент ~ of release закон. наказ. справка об освобождении ~ of retrocession страх. свидетельство о ретроцессии ~ of share ownership свидетельство о владении акцией ~ of subscription right свидетельство о праве подписки ~ of transfer of share ownership бирж. свидетельство о передаче права на владение акциями ~ of unfitness for work свидетельство о нетрудоспособности ~ of vaccination справка о вакцинации ~ of wage tax deduction справка об удержании налога из заработной платы charges ~ свидетельство о регистрации clearance ~ свидетельство о таможенной очистке conciliation ~ свидетельство о примирении customhouse ~ таможенное свидетельство customs ~ таможенное свидетельство customs-exemption ~ свидетельство об освобождении от уплаты таможенной пошлины death ~ свидетельство о смерти debt ~ долговой сертификат degree ~ диплом degree ~ свидетельство об образовании discharge ~ свидетельство об увольнении с военной службы dividend-right ~ сертификат, подтверждающий право на получение дивидендов easement ~ недв. документ на сервитут employer's ~ сертификат работодателя energy ~ сертификат на добычу энергоресурсов exchange ~ валютный сертификат exemption ~ свидетельство об изъятии export ~ лицензия на экспорт firearms ~ сертификат на огнестрельное оружие foreign exchange ~ сертификат на иностранную валюту freeboard ~ свидетельство о грузовой марке general ~ (A level) генеральное свидетельство об образовании (Великобритания) guarantee ~ гарайтийное свидетельство guarantee ~ гарантийное свидетельство guarantee ~ гарантийный сертификат health ~ свидетельство о состояния здоровья health ~ справка о здоровье health insurance ~ соц. страховое свидетельство о состоянии здоровья import ~ импортная лицензия inscription ~ именной сертификат inspection ~ приемочный акт insulation ~ свидетельство об обособлении insurance ~ свидетельство о страховании insurance ~ страховое свидетельство international ~ международный сертификат international tonnage ~ суд. международное мерительное свидетельство inventory ~ свидетельство о состоянии товарно-материальных запасов investment ~ инвестиционный сертификат inward clearance ~ свидетельство об очистке от пошлин по приходе судна в порт issue a ~ выдавать сертификат land ~ удостоверение на право пользования землей land registry ~ сертификат на землевладение land registry ~ удостоверение регистрации земельного участка land surveyor's ~ удостоверение землемера landing ~ свидетельство о выгрузке landing ~ таможенный документ на выгруженные грузы leaving ~ свидетельство об окончании учебного заведения legal aid ~ свидетельство о правовой помощи liability ~ сертификат задолженности life ~ свидетельство, выдаваемое участникам группового страхования load line ~ свидетельство о грузовой марке loan ~ расписка о предоставлении займа loan ~ расчетный сертификат loan ~ свидетельство задолженности одного члена клиринговой палаты перед другим marine insurance ~ свидетельство о морском страховании marriage ~ свидетельство о браке master's ~ квалификационное свидетельство master's ~ удостоверение судебного распорядителя medical ~ больничный лист medical ~ врачебный сертификат medical ~ медицинская справка medical ~ медицинское свидетельство mortgage ~ закладной сертификат mortgage ~ ипотечное свидетельство movement ~ сертификат на перевозку товара national savings ~ государственный сберегательный сертификат (Великобритания) negotiable ~ свободнообращающийся сертификат notarial ~ документ, составленный и засвидетельствованный нотариусом notarial ~ нотариальное свидетельство official ~ официальный сертификат outward clearance ~ свидетельство об очистке от пошлин при отходе судна ownership ~ свидетельство о регистрации собственности participation ~ сертификат участия pension ~ пенсионное свидетельство physical share ~ свидетельство на физическую акцию physical share ~ физический акционерный сертификат practising ~ патент на адвокатскую практику practising ~ патент на врачебную практику probate court ~ свидетельство о наследстве, выданное судом provisional share ~ временное свидетельство на акцию registration ~ регистрационное свидетельство renewal ~ документ о пролонгации векселя rights ~ документ, подтверждающий права safe-deposit ~ депозитный сертификат safety ~ сертификат о соответствии требованиям техники безопасности sanitary ~ карантинное свидетельство sanitary ~ санитарное свидетельство savings ~ депозитный сертификат savings ~ сберегательный сертификат scrip ~ временный документ, выдаваемый вместо неполной акции, образовавшейся в результате разбивки акций scrip ~ письменное обязательство банка выдать сертификат ценной бумаги после его выпуска scrip ~ разновидность товаросопроводительного документа scrip ~ сертификат на участие в подписке scrip: ~ certificate свидетельство о праве собственности на акции;
предварительное свидетельство на акции search ~ сертификат на поиск полезных ископаемых secondary school-leaving ~ свидетельство об окончании средней школы share ~ акционерный сертификат share ~ акция;
свидетельство на акцию share ~ именное свидетельство на акцию share ~ свидетельство на акцию share subscription ~ акционерный сертификат shipbuilder's ~ сертификат судостроителя short-term debt ~ краткосрочное долговое свидетельство skilled worker's ~ свидетельство о квалификации работника stock ~ акционерный сертификат stock ~ (амер.) акция, свидетельство на акцию stock ~ свидетельство на акцию stock ~ свидетельство на долю участия в акционерном капитале street ~ неофициальный сертификат subscription ~ временный документ, выдаваемый вместо неполной акции, образовавшейся в результате разбивки акций subscription ~ письменное обязательство банка выдать сертификат ценной бумаги после ее выпуска subscription ~ подписной сертификат test ~ свидетельство об испытании tonnage ~ суд. мерительное свидетельство trading ~ сертификат, дающий компании право начинать деятельность( Великобритания) transferable loan ~ (TLC) обращающееся заемное свидетельство treasury ~ налоговый сертификат (США) unit trust ~ сертификат инвестиционного траст-фонда (Великобритания) vaccination ~ свидетельство о вакцинации warrant ~ варрант warrant ~ опцион weight ~ акт проверки гирь

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > certificate
20 most

məust
1. superlative of many, much (often with the) - adjective
1) ((the) greatest number or quantity of: Which of the students has read the most books?; Reading is what gives me most enjoyment.) más

2) (the majority or greater part of: Most children like playing games; Most modern music is difficult to understand.) la mayoría (de), la mayor parte (de)

2. adverb
1) (used to form the superlative of many adjectives and adverbs, especially those of more than two syllables: Of all the women I know, she's the most beautiful; the most delicious cake I've ever tasted; We see her mother or father sometimes, but we see her grandmother most frequently.) más

2) (to the greatest degree or extent: They like sweets and biscuits but they like ice-cream most of all.) más

3) (very or extremely: I'm most grateful to you for everything you've done; a most annoying child.) muy, de lo más

4) ((American) almost: Most everyone I know has read that book.) casi

3. pronoun
1) (the greatest number or quantity: I ate two cakes, but Mary ate more, and John ate (the) most.) lo máximo

2) (the greatest part; the majority: He'll be at home for most of the day; Most of these students speak English; Everyone is leaving - most have gone already.) la mayor parte

•

- mostly
- at the most
- at most
- for the most part
- make the most of something
- make the most of

most¹ adj pron la mayoría / la mayor parte

most people own cars la mayoría de la gente tiene coche

most of the tourists were German la mayoría de los turistas eran alemanes

most² adv más

the most beautiful girl in the world la chica más guapa del mundo

most

tr[məʊst]

adjective

1 (greatest in quantity) más

■ Simon's got the most points Simon tiene más puntos

■ who's got the most money? ¿quién tiene más dinero?

2 (majority) la mayoría de, la mayor parte de

■ most people live in flats la mayoría de la gente vive en pisos

■ we spent most time on the beach pasamos la mayor parte del tiempo en la playa

■ he likes most music le gusta casi toda la música

adverb

1 más

■ the most difficult question la pregunta más difícil

pronoun

1 (greatest part) la mayor parte

■ most of it is finished la mayor parte está terminada, casi todo está acabado

■ it rained most of the time llovió durante la mayor parte del tiempo

2 (greatest number or amount) lo máximo

■ the most I can do is loan you the money lo máximo que puedo hacer es prestarte el dinero

■ he lied the most mintió más que nadie

3 (the majority of people) la mayoría

■ as most of you already know como ya sabe la mayoría de vosotros

adverb

1 (superlative) más

■ the most beautiful girl la chica más guapa

■ the most expensive restaurant el restaurante más caro

■ the most exciting holiday las vacaciones más emocionantes

2 (to the greatest degree) más

■ I enjoyed the music most lo que más me gustó fue la música

■ what angered me most was the way she spoke lo que más me enojó fue su manera de hablar

3 (very) muy, de lo más

■ it was most kind of you ha sido muy amable de su parte

■ a most delightful evening una tarde muy agradable

4 SMALLAMERICAN ENGLISH/SMALL (almost) casi

■ he goes out most every night sale casi todas las noches

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

at (the) (very) most como máximo

for the most part por lo general

most likely muy probablemente

most of all sobre todo

to do the most one can hacer todo lo que se pueda, hacer lo máximo que se pueda

to make the most of something aprovechar algo al máximo Table 1SMALLNOTA/SMALL Véanse también many y much/Table 1

most ['mo:st] adv

: más

the most interesting book: el libro más interesante

most adj

1) : la mayoría de, la mayor parte de

most people: la mayoría de la gente

2) greatest: más (dícese de los números), mayor (dícese de las cantidades)

the most ability: la mayor capacidad

most n

: más m, máximo m

the most I can do: lo más que puedo hacer

three weeks at the most: tres semanas como máximo

most pron

: la mayoría, la mayor parte

most will go: la mayoría irá

most

adj.

• la mayor parte adj.

• la mayoría adj.

• lo más adj.

• más adj.

adv.

• más adv.

n.

• el mayor número s.m.

• la mayor parte s.f.

I məʊst
adjective

a) ( nearly all) la mayoría de, la mayor parte de

most people — casi todo el mundo or la mayoría de la gente

most days — casi todos los días

b) (as superl) más

who eats (the) most meat in your family? — ¿quién es el que come más carne de tu familia?

II

pronoun

a) ( nearly all) la mayoría, la mayor parte

most of us/them — la mayoría de nosotros/ellos

most of the wine — casi todo el vino

I read most of it — lo leí casi todo

b) (as superl)

she ate the most — fue la que más comió, comió más que nadie

it is the most we can offer you — es todo lo que podemos ofrecerle

at (the) most — como máximo, a lo sumo

to make the most of something — sacar* el mejor provecho posible de algo

make the most of it — aprovéchalo al máximo

c) ( people) la mayoría

III

adverb

1)

a) ( to greatest extent) más

what I like/dislike (the) most about him is... — lo que más/menos me gusta de él es...

I enjoyed the last act most of all — el último acto fue el que más me gustó

b) (before adj, adv) más

which is the most expensive? — ¿cuál es el más caro?

it's Joe who visits us (the) most often — es Joe el que nos visita más a menudo

2) (as intensifier)

what happened was most interesting — lo que sucedió fue de lo más interesante

it was most kind of you — fue muy amable de su parte

most probably o likely — muy probablemente

3) ( almost) (AmE colloq) casi

she ate most all the food — se comió casi toda la comida

[mǝʊst]
1. ADJ
(superl)
1) (making comparisons) más

who has (the) most money? — ¿quién tiene más dinero?

for the most part — por lo general

2) (=the majority of) la mayoría de, la mayor parte de

most men — la mayoría de or la mayor parte de los hombres

most people go out on Friday nights — la mayoría de or la mayor parte de la gente sale los viernes por la noche

2.

N
PRON
most of it — la mayor parte

most of them — la mayoría de ellos, la mayor parte de ellos

most of the money — la mayor parte del dinero

most of the time — la mayor parte del tiempo, gran parte del tiempo

most of those present — la mayoría de or la mayor parte de los asistentes

most of her friends — la mayoría de or la mayor parte de sus amigos

do the most you can — haz lo que puedas

• at (the) most, at the very most — como máximo, a lo sumo

20 minutes at the most — 20 minutos como máximo or a lo sumo

• to get the most out of a situation — sacar el máximo partido a una situación

• to make the most of sth — (=make good use of) aprovechar algo al máximo, sacar el máximo partido a algo; (=enjoy) disfrutar algo al máximo

to make the most of one's advantages — aprovechar al máximo las propias ventajas

he made the most of the story — explotó todas las posibilidades del cuento

3. ADV

1) (superl) más

he spent most — él gastó más

the most difficult question — la pregunta más difícil

which one did it most easily? — ¿quién lo hizo con mayor facilidad?

2) (=extremely) sumamente, muy

• most holy — santísimo

• a most interesting book — un libro interesantísimo or sumamente interesante

• you have been most kind — ha sido usted muy amable

• most likely — lo más probable

See:

MAJORITY, MOST in majority

* * *

I [məʊst]
adjective

a) ( nearly all) la mayoría de, la mayor parte de

most people — casi todo el mundo or la mayoría de la gente

most days — casi todos los días

b) (as superl) más

who eats (the) most meat in your family? — ¿quién es el que come más carne de tu familia?

II

pronoun

a) ( nearly all) la mayoría, la mayor parte

most of us/them — la mayoría de nosotros/ellos

most of the wine — casi todo el vino

I read most of it — lo leí casi todo

b) (as superl)

she ate the most — fue la que más comió, comió más que nadie

it is the most we can offer you — es todo lo que podemos ofrecerle

at (the) most — como máximo, a lo sumo

to make the most of something — sacar* el mejor provecho posible de algo

make the most of it — aprovéchalo al máximo

c) ( people) la mayoría

III

adverb

1)

a) ( to greatest extent) más

what I like/dislike (the) most about him is... — lo que más/menos me gusta de él es...

I enjoyed the last act most of all — el último acto fue el que más me gustó

b) (before adj, adv) más

which is the most expensive? — ¿cuál es el más caro?

it's Joe who visits us (the) most often — es Joe el que nos visita más a menudo

2) (as intensifier)

what happened was most interesting — lo que sucedió fue de lo más interesante

it was most kind of you — fue muy amable de su parte

most probably o likely — muy probablemente

3) ( almost) (AmE colloq) casi

she ate most all the food — se comió casi toda la comida

English-spanish dictionary > most

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general degree — noun : pass degree * * * general degree same as ↑pass degree (see under ↑pass). • • • Main Entry: ↑general … Useful english dictionary
Degree — may refer to: Contents 1 As a unit of measurement 2 In mathematics 3 In education … Wikipedia
Degree — De*gree , n. [F. degr[ e], OF. degret, fr. LL. degradare. See {Degrade}.] 1. A step, stair, or staircase. [Obs.] [1913 Webster] By ladders, or else by degree. Rom. of R. [1913 Webster] 2. One of a series of progressive steps upward or downward,… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Degree of a curve — Degree De*gree , n. [F. degr[ e], OF. degret, fr. LL. degradare. See {Degrade}.] 1. A step, stair, or staircase. [Obs.] [1913 Webster] By ladders, or else by degree. Rom. of R. [1913 Webster] 2. One of a series of progressive steps upward or… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Degree of a surface — Degree De*gree , n. [F. degr[ e], OF. degret, fr. LL. degradare. See {Degrade}.] 1. A step, stair, or staircase. [Obs.] [1913 Webster] By ladders, or else by degree. Rom. of R. [1913 Webster] 2. One of a series of progressive steps upward or… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Degree of latitude — Degree De*gree , n. [F. degr[ e], OF. degret, fr. LL. degradare. See {Degrade}.] 1. A step, stair, or staircase. [Obs.] [1913 Webster] By ladders, or else by degree. Rom. of R. [1913 Webster] 2. One of a series of progressive steps upward or… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Degree of longitude — Degree De*gree , n. [F. degr[ e], OF. degret, fr. LL. degradare. See {Degrade}.] 1. A step, stair, or staircase. [Obs.] [1913 Webster] By ladders, or else by degree. Rom. of R. [1913 Webster] 2. One of a series of progressive steps upward or… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
General Councils — General Councils † Catholic Encyclopedia ► General Councils This subject will be treated under the following heads: ♦ Definition ♦ Classification ♦ Historical Sketch ♦ The Pope and General Councils ♦ Composition of … Catholic encyclopedia
General Educational Development — (or GED) tests are a group of five tests which (when passed) certifies that the taker has American or Canadian high school level academic skills. To pass the GED Tests and earn a GED credential, test takers must score higher than 40 percent of… … Wikipedia
General equilibrium — theory is a branch of theoretical microeconomics. It seeks to explain the behavior of supply, demand and prices in a whole economy with several or many markets. It is often assumed that agents are price takers and in that setting two common… … Wikipedia
Degree programs at Boston College — are offered in over 50 fields in 11 schools and colleges. [cite web | url = http://www.bc.edu/about/ | title = About Boston College | accessdate = 2006 08 15] Departments and majorsCollege of Arts Sciences /School of Arts Sciences *African and… … Wikipedia

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a general degree

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

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a general degree

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